“An objective uncertainty held fast in an appropriation-process of the most passionate inwardness is the truth, the highest truth attainable for an existing individual” – Soren Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript
In our investigation of certainty, we have arrived at the exploration of the subjective manifestations of truth. In the last two blogs we looked at four of them: pragmatic instances, individual perceptions, the observer’s role in knowledge, and internal reality. Today we delve into Kierkegaard’s existential subjectivity.
In his masterpiece, Concluding Unscientific Postscript, Kierkegaard challenges the 19th century view of truth as objective reflection, arguing that this process makes the subject (the knower) indifferent or accidental, and hence the most objective knowledge possible entails the vanishing of the subject, the knower herself. But Kierkegaard sees this as illogical; knowledge and truth must be possessed by an existent being, who alone can have interest in truth. The objectivity which comes from denial of the subject can be at most “an hypothesis or an approximation.”1 “All essential knowledge relates to existence, or only such knowledge as has an essential relationship to existence is essential knowledge.” 2
Compared to objectivity, “subjective reflection turns its attention inwardly, and desires in this intensification an inwardness to realize the truth…an identity of thought and being.”3 Reality consists only of existing individual things, thus existence and truth are indelibly individual in character. Thought is fine as long as it is existentially rooted because the subjective thinker is at the same time a thinker and an existing human being. Since existence is a continual process of becoming, logic and pure thought can never quite capture it. 4
Kierkegaard stumbles onto one of the most sublime thoughts in all of philosophy: “Truth is subjectivity.” By this I believe he is referring to personal truth, not scientific facts. This inner truth is the only truth that matters to the individual as individual, that which is “true for me… a truth I live not merely observe… which I am , not merely posses. Truth is a mode of action or a manner of existence. The subjective thinker lives the truth; he exists it.”5 Examples of such truths concern love, life decisions, the future, death, immortality, and God. They always involve uncertainty; that is, subjectivity and uncertainty are coextensive. When objective knowledge and certainty are placed in abeyance, inward passion intensifies toward the infinite and at least in the case of God, faith is the result. Compare this with the objectivity of a mathematical proposition with its indifferent certainty. 6
Kierkegaard’s thought process is admittedly difficult to follow and abbreviate. However I think most of us understand the difference in the significance of certain truth like the formula for the area of a circle, whatever its practical use, versus the truth of our limited lifespans, the love of our spouse, the nature of our inner self, or our concept of ultimate reality. Subjective truth, it seems to me, trumps objective certainty when considering the meaning of life and the pursuit of happiness.
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1Cahn, Steven M. (editor), Classics of Western Philosophy. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., Indianapolis, IN, 1999. ISBN0-87220-436-7, page 882.
2Ibid., page 884.
3Ibid., page 883.
4Magill, Frank, Masterpieces of World Philosophy in Summary Form. Harper&Row Publishers, 1961, page 628.
5Ibid., page 627
6Cahn, Steven M. (editor), Classics of Western Philosophy. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., Indianapolis, IN, 1999. ISBN0-87220-436-7, page 887.
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We start with John Dewey, a pragmatist and follower of James, who attributes a vital role of the knower in knowledge. Dewey argues that knowledge is ‘eventual,’ that is the outcome of directed experimental operations rather than something existing before the act of knowing. He is particularly struck by the significance of the observer with respect to Heisenberg’s principle of indeterminacy. “Knowing is seen to be a participant in what is finally known. Moreover, the metaphysics of existence as something fixed and therefore capable of literally exact mathematical description and prediction is undermined.”5
But James offers a simple example that seems to me to be inconvertible evidence of at least some subjective truth. Assume you come across a chasm and must decide whether you can jump across it. Here the subject alone determines the truth, for if you believe you cannot, you will not and the truth of your belief is confirmed. If you believe you can, and then jump it, your subjective truth is verified when you do (we will not consider the decision to jump and fail).2 Of course James believe the subjective truth of pragmatism is more extensive, applying to other circumstances.
Likewise if a color-blind person says red and green traffic lights appear identical, we might say his sensation is inconsistent with our own and offer scientific arguments against him, but we cannot say that his experience of them is untrue. Human sensation is always subjective; we only assume (and hope) our sensory functions are consistent as a species.
Human concepts also involve subjectivity: the Big Dipper is a recognizable constellation to most people in the northern hemisphere, but not presumably to the cosmos. Is it real? True? Certain? A final example is the six-pointed star; is it two triangles or a hexagon with legs on each side? Are both descriptions true? Or is neither true? Dependent on the observer?4
By these definitions, we can say it is certain that 2+2=4, but not that God exists. Philosophically, certainty refers to the relational property of statements or propositions rather than a simple state of mind. Its opposite is “doubtful”, while the intermediate status is “probable.” All of these qualify our judgments rather than designate the truth value of the statement; for example, statements can be certainly true or certainly false.2
A priori statements do not depend on any sensory experience and are thought to be true or certain because their opposites are self-contradictory. Examples include (1) “A part is less than the whole,” (2) statements of identity such as “2 = 2,” and (3) “All human experience occurs within space and time.” The breadth and value of such knowledge is limited as it is most often truth by definition even if not always immediately evident. This form of knowledge is manifested in logic and mathematics.
However earlier investigations came back again and again to the issue of certainty, and I have come to see that effective guidance is utterly dependent on having a means to distinguish knowledge which can be relied upon from that which is suspect. The fulcrum of all understanding and decision making comes down to the skill in appraisal of levels of certainty and doubt, and on one’s level of confidence in knowledge for action. Thus I propose now to take on this subject despite its theoretical difficulties.
Next in The Good Old Liberal Consensus, Daniel A. Kaufman examines wisdom in the political realm as described in John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government and John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty. Briefly they inform the ‘liberal consensus’ which is based on the theory that the clashing of people’s interests and aims is inevitable, that the state is a neutral referee, and that an individual’s pursuit of good should be unmolested except when obstructive to another individual’s pursuit of good. From this foundation, four key principles arise: (1) the purpose of the state is to allow the individual to pursue his idea of the good, (2) thought and speech should be free, (3) the state should err on the side of free speech, and (4) engagement with those with whom one disagrees should take the form of discourse not personal attack. These principles are supposed to be sustained by the collective recognition that unanimous agreement on policy is implausible and that one’s political allies cannot be in power forever. However, in his opinion, this wisdom is being undermined by both the Right and the Left.
Last Valerie Tiberius entertains a more psychological sense of wisdom through the contemplation of a single adage, also her essay’s title: Live Each Day as If It Were Your Last. The power of this advice is its tendency to alleviate worry and excuse perfectionism. More generally it encourages the development of perspective that aligns emotions with what really matters. She places it within Aristotle’s practical wisdom or phronesis, the use of reason to apply knowledge to decision-making. But Tiberius suspects this proverb may not do justice to what really matters. She references Doing Valuable Time: The Present, The Future, and Meaningful Living by Cheshire Calhoun who divides one’s time into four parts: (1) “primary spending” – things done for their own sake (e.g. time with friends), (2) “entailed spending” – instrumental activities (e.g grocery shopping, studying), (3) “norm required” – compliance with societal norms (e.g. legal duties), and (4) “filler spending” – such as actions when waiting, unmotivated, or tired. Meaning comes mainly from primary spending while things we value require significant entailed spending. Her conclusion is that one can take the ‘last day’ perspective sometimes, but not at all times – wisdom then is the ability to shift one’s perspective as circumstances require.
“To know how to grow old is the master-work of wisdom, and one of the most difficult chapters in the great art of living.” – 
Massimo Pigliucci’s piece, Wisdom: What Is It? examines the Stoic tradition. Following Socrates’ thought that wisdom equates to virtue as it is the only intrinsic good that cannot be used to do evil, Seneca offers the corollary: “Virtue is nothing else but right reason.” Such reason can be defined as “fitting expertise” in the “art of living.” Pigliucci suggests three tools for mastery of this art: (1) reading biographies of persons to emulate (e.g. Cato), (2) review of theoretical treatises (such as Seneca’s On Anger), and (3) study of practical books (e.g. Epictetus’ Enchiridion). From these we learn the cardinal virtues of courage, justice, temperance, and practical wisdom which allow us to center our lives with a moral compass to achieve arête, the best way of living.
Catherine Wilson follows with Epicurean Wisdom wherein subjective pleasure and the avoidance of psychological and physical pain and deprivation are seen as the highest human goods when paired with the avoidance of selfishness and harm to others. This doctrine historically urges one to avoid unnecessary political and social involvement preferably by living in a communal setting with like-minded individuals. Wilson sees this as a problem for modernity as most of us do not wish to withdraw from society; instead she extrapolates the following lessons for contemporary living: (1) oppose oligarchy legislatively, (2) seek not eternal youth and longevity nor fear death and inevitable deterioration, rather prepare for them, (3) support justice defined as the prevention of harm, and (4) deploy utilitarian governance as the societal expression of Epicureanism.
“Although the world is full of suffering, it is also full of the overcoming of it.” – Helen Keller.
We find suffering is a domain of ironies. It may be the opposite of happiness, but is likely necessary to achieve happiness. It is universal but need not be inevitable. The pleasures we seek to increase happiness unexpectedly lead to suffering. A strong ego and selfishness intended to protect oneself from unhappiness often lead not to fulfillment, but to suffering. And perhaps most paradoxical of all – even extreme suffering can be the catalyst for finding meaning in endurance and making oneself worthy of it.
